A Hyperloop is a proposed mode of passenger and/or freight transportation, first used to describe an open-source vactrain design released by a joint team from Tesla and SpaceX.[1] Drawing heavily from Robert Goddard's vactrain, a hyperloop comprises a sealed tube or system of tubes through which a pod may travel free of air resistance or friction conveying people or objects at high speed while being very efficient.
Elon Musk's version of the concept, first publicly mentioned in 2012,[2] incorporates reduced-pressure tubes in which pressurized capsules ride on air bearings driven by linear induction motors and air compressors.[3]
The Hyperloop Alpha concept was first published in August 2013, proposing and examining a route running from the Los Angeles region to the San Francisco Bay Area roughly following the Interstate 5 corridor. The paper conceived of a hyperloop system that would propel passengers along the 350-mile (560 km) route at an average speed of around 600 mph (970 km/h), with a top speed of 760 mph (1,200 km/h), allowing for a travel time of 35 minutes, which is considerably faster than current rail or air travel times. Preliminary cost estimates for this LA–SF suggested route were included in the white paper—US$6 billion for a passenger-only version, and US$7.5 billion for a somewhat larger-diameter version transporting passengers and vehicles[1]—although transportation analysts had doubts that the system could be constructed on that budget; some analysts claimed that the Hyperloop would be several billion dollars overbudget, taking into consideration construction, development and operation costs.[4][5][6]
The Hyperloop concept has been explicitly "open-sourced" by Musk and SpaceX, and others have been encouraged to take the ideas and further develop them.
To that end, a few companies have been formed, and several interdisciplinary student-led teams are working to advance the technology.[7] SpaceX built an approximately 1-mile-long (1.6 km) subscale track for its pod design competition at its headquarters in Hawthorne, California.[8]
Some experts are skeptical, saying that the proposals ignore the expenses and risks of developing the technology and that the idea is "completely impractical".[9] Claims have also been made that the Hyperloop is too susceptible to disruption from a power outage or terror attacks to be considered safe.[9]
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[hide]History[edit]
The general idea of trains or other transportation traveling through evacuated tubes dates back more than a century, although the atmospheric railway was never a commercial success.
Musk first mentioned that he was thinking about a concept for a "fifth mode of transport", calling it the Hyperloop, in July 2012 at a PandoDaily event in Santa Monica, California. This hypothetical high-speed mode of transportation would have the following characteristics: immunity to weather, collision free, twice the speed of a plane, low power consumption, and energy storage for 24-hour operations.[10] The name Hyperloop was chosen because it would go in a loop. Musk envisions the more advanced versions will be able to go at hypersonic speed.[11] In May 2013, Musk likened the Hyperloop to a "cross between a Concorde and a railgun and an air hockey table".[12]
From late 2012 until August 2013, a group of engineers from both Tesla and SpaceX worked on the conceptual modeling of Hyperloop.[13] An early system design was published in the Tesla and SpaceX blogs[1][14] which describes one potential design, function, pathway, and cost of a hyperloop system.[1] According to the alpha design, pods would accelerate to cruising speed gradually using a linear electric motor and glide above their track on air bearings through tubes above ground on columns or below ground in tunnels to avoid the dangers of grade crossings. An ideal hyperloop system will be more energy-efficient, quiet, and autonomous than existing modes of mass transit. Musk has also invited feedback to "see if the people can find ways to improve it". The Hyperloop Alpha was released as an open source design.[15] The word mark "HYPERLOOP", applicable to "high-speed transportation of goods in tubes" was issued to SpaceX on April 4, 2017.[16][17]
In June 2015, SpaceX announced that it would build a 1-mile-long (1.6 km) test track to be located next to SpaceX's Hawthorne facility. The track would be used to test pod designs supplied by third parties in the competition.[18][19]
By November 2015, with several commercial companies and dozens of student teams pursuing the development of Hyperloop technologies, the Wall Street Journal asserted that "The Hyperloop Movement, as some of its unaffiliated members refer to themselves, is officially bigger than the man who started it."[20]
The MIT Hyperloop team developed the first Hyperloop pod prototype, which they unveiled at the MIT Museum on May 13, 2016. Their design was based on electrodynamic suspension for levitating and used eddy current braking.[21]
On January 29, 2017, approximately one year after winning phase one of the Hyperloop pod competition,[22] the MIT Hyperloop pod demonstrated the first ever low-pressure Hyperloop run in the world.[23]
Theory and operation[edit]
Developments in high-speed rail have historically been impeded by the difficulties in managing friction and air resistance, both of which become substantial when vehicles approach high speeds. The vactrain concept theoretically eliminates these obstacles by employing magnetically levitating trains in evacuated (airless) or partly evacuated tubes, allowing for speeds of thousands of miles per hour. However, the high cost of maglev and the difficulty of maintaining a vacuum over large distances has prevented this type of system from ever being built. The Hyperloop resembles a vactrain system but operates at approximately one millibar (100 Pa) of pressure.[24]
Initial design concept[edit]
The Hyperloop concept operates by sending specially designed "Capsules" or "pods" through a steel tube maintained at a partial vacuum. In Musk's original concept, each capsule floats on a 0.02–0.05 in (0.5–1.3 mm) layer of air provided under pressure to air-caster "skis", similar to how pucks are suspended in an air hockey table, while still allowing for speeds that wheels cannot sustain. Hyperloop One's technology uses passive maglev for the same purpose. Linear induction motors located along the tube would accelerate and decelerate the capsule to the appropriate speed for each section of the tube route. With rolling resistance eliminated and air resistance greatly reduced, the capsules can glide for the bulk of the journey. In Musk's original Hyperloop concept, an electrically driven inlet fan and air compressor would be placed at the nose of the capsule to "actively transfer high-pressure air from the front to the rear of the vessel," resolving the problem of air pressure building in front of the vehicle, slowing it down.[1] A fraction of the air is shunted to the skis for additional pressure, augmenting that gain passively from lift due to their shape. Hyperloop One's system does away with the compressor.
In the alpha-level concept, passenger-only pods are to be 7 ft 4 in (2.23 m) in diameter[1] and projected to reach a top speed of 760 mph (1,220 km/h) to maintain aerodynamic efficiency [1] (Section 4.4). The design proposes passengers experience a maximum inertial acceleration of 0.5 g, about 2 or 3 times that of a commercial airliner on takeoff and landing.
Proposed routes[edit]
A number of routes have been proposed for Hyperloop systems that meet the approximate distance conditions for which a Hyperloop is hypothesized to provide improved transport times. Route proposals range from speculation described in company releases to business cases to signed agreements.
United States[edit]
The route suggested in the 2013 alpha-level design document was from the Greater Los Angeles Area to the San Francisco Bay Area. That conceptual system would begin around Sylmar, just south of the Tejon Pass, follow Interstate 5 to the north, and arrive near Hayward on the east side of San Francisco Bay. Several proposed branches were also shown in the design document, including Sacramento, Anaheim, San Diego, and Las Vegas.[1]
No work has been done on the route proposed in Musk's alpha-design, with one cited reason being it would terminate on the fringes of the two major metropolitan areas (Los Angeles and San Francisco), resulting in significant cost savings in construction, but requiring that passengers traveling to and from Downtown Los Angeles and San Francisco, and any other community beyond Sylmar and Hayward, to transfer to another transportation mode in order to reach their final destination. This would significantly lengthen the total travel time to those destinations.[25]
A similar problem already affects present-day air travel, where on short routes (like LAX-SFO) the flight time is only a rather small part of door to door travel time. Critics have argued that this would significantly reduce the proposed cost and/or time savings of Hyperloop as compared to the California High-Speed Rail project that will serve downtown stations in both San Francisco and Los Angeles.[26][27][28] Passengers travelling financial centre to financial centre are estimated to save about two hours by taking the Hyperloop instead of driving the whole distance.[29]
Others questioned the cost projections for the suggested California route. Some transportation engineers argued in 2013 that they found the alpha-level design cost estimates unrealistically low given the scale of construction and reliance on unproven technology. The technological and economic feasibility of the idea is unproven and a subject of significant debate.[4][5][6][25]
In November, 2017, Arrivo announced a plan for a maglev automobile transport system from Aurora, Colorado to Denver International Airport, the first leg of a system from downtown Denver.[30] Its contract describes completion of the first leg in 2021.
Elsewhere[edit]
Many of the active Hyperloop routes being planned currently are outside of the U.S. Hyperloop One published the world's first detailed business case for a 300-mile (500 km) route between Helsinki and Stockholm, which would tunnel under the Baltic Sea to connect the two capitals in under 30 minutes.[31] Hyperloop One is also well underway on a feasibility study with DP World to move containers from its Port of Jebel Ali in Dubai.[32] Hyperloop One on November 8, 2016 announced a new feasibility study with Dubai's Roads and Transport Authority for passenger and freight routes connecting Dubai with the greater United Arab Emirates. Hyperloop One is also working on passenger routes in Moscow[33][34] and a cargo Hyperloop to connect Hunchun in north-eastern China to the Port of Zarubino, near Vladivostok and the North Korean border on Russia's Far East.[35]In May 2016, Hyperloop One kicked off their Global Challenge with a call for comprehensive proposals of hyperloop networks around the world.[36] In September 2017, Hyperloop One selected 10 routes from 35 of the strongest proposals: Toronto-Montreal, Cheyenne-Denver-Pueblo, Miami-Orlando, Dallas-Laredo-Houston, Chicago-Columbus-Pittsburgh, Mexico City-Guadalajara, Edinburgh-London, Glasgow-Liverpool, Bengaluru-Chennai and Mumbai-Chennai.[37][38]
Others have put forward European routes, including a Paris to Amsterdam route proposed by Delft Hyperloop.[39][40] A Warsaw University of Technology team is evaluating potential routes from Cracow to Gdańsk across Poland proposed by Hyper Poland.[41]
TransPod is exploring the possibility of Hyperloop routes which would connect Toronto and Montreal,[42][43] Toronto to Windsor,[44] and Calgary to Edmonton.[45] Toronto and Montreal, the largest cities in Canada, are currently connected by the Highway 401, the busiest highway in North America.[46]
Hyperloop Transportation Technologies (HTT) reportedly signed an agreement with the government of Slovakia in March 2016 to perform impact studies, with potential links between Bratislava, Vienna and Budapest, but there have been no developments on that since.[47] In January 2017, HTT signed an agreement to explore the route Bratislava—Brno—Prague in Central Europe.[48]
HTT are also in process to sign a Letter of Intent with the Indian Government for a proposed route between Chennai and Bengaluru. If things go as planned, the distance of 345 km could be covered in 30 minutes.[49] Indore-based Dinclix GroundWorks' DGWHyperloop advocates a Hyperloop corridor between Mumbai and Delhi, passing via Indore, Kota and Jaipur.[50] HTT also signed an agreement with Andhra Pradesh government to build India's first Hyperloop project connecting Amaravathi to Vijayawada in a 6 min ride.
Open-source design evolution[edit]
In September 2013, Ansys Corporation ran computational fluid dynamics simulations to model the aerodynamics of the capsule and shear stress forces that the capsule would be subjected to. The simulation showed that the capsule design would need to be significantly reshaped to avoid creating supersonic airflow, and that the gap between the tube wall and capsule would need to be larger. Ansys employee Sandeep Sovani said the simulation showed that Hyperloop has challenges but that he is convinced it is feasible.[51][52]
In October 2013, the development team of the OpenMDAO software framework released an unfinished, conceptual open-source model of parts of the Hyperloop's propulsion system. The team asserted that the model demonstrated the concept's feasibility, although the tube would need to be 13 feet (4 m) in diameter,[53] significantly larger than originally projected. However, the team's model is not a true working model of the propulsion system, as it did not account for a wide range of technological factors required to physically construct a Hyperloop based on Musk's concept, and in particular had no significant estimations of component weight.[54]
In November 2013, MathWorks analyzed the proposal's suggested route and concluded that the route was mainly feasible. The analysis focused on the acceleration experienced by passengers and the necessary deviations from public roads in order to keep the accelerations reasonable; it did highlight that maintaining a trajectory along I-580 east of San Francisco at the planned speeds was not possible without significant deviation into heavily populated areas.[55]
In January 2015, a paper based on the NASA OpenMDAO open-source model reiterated the need for a larger diameter tube and a reduced cruise speed closer to Mach 0.85. It recommended removing on-board heat exchangers based on thermal models of the interactions between the compressor cycle, tube, and ambient environment. The compression cycle would only contribute 5% of the heat added to the tube, with 95% of the heat attributed to radiation and convection into the tube. The weight and volume penalty of on-board heat exchangers would not be worth the minor benefit, and regardless the steady-state temperature in the tube would only reach 30–40 °F (17–22 °C) above ambient temperature.[56]
According to Musk, various aspects of the Hyperloop have technology applications to other Musk interests, including surface transportation on Mars and electric jet propulsion.[57][58]
Researchers associated with MIT's department of Aeronautics and Astronautics published research in June 2017 that verified the challenge of aerodynamic design near the Kantrowitz Limit that had been theorized in the original SpaceX Alpha-design concept released in 2013.[59]
In 2017, Dr. Richard Geddes and others formed the Hyperloop Advanced Research Partnership to act as a clearinghouse of Hyperloop public domain reports and data.[60]
Mars[edit]
According to Musk, Hyperloop would be useful on Mars as no tubes would be needed because Mars' atmosphere is about 1% the density of the Earth's at sea level.[61][11][62][63]For the Hyperloop concept to work on Earth, low-pressure tubes are required to reduce air resistance. However, if they were to be built on Mars, the lower air resistance would allow a Hyperloop to be created with no tube, only a track.[64]
Hyperloop companies[edit]
Virgin Hyperloop One[edit]
Hyperloop One, formerly Hyperloop Technologies,[65] was incorporated in 2014 and has built a team of 280+, including engineers, technicians, welders and machinists. It has raised more than US$160 million in capital from investors including DP World, Sherpa Capital, Formation 8, 137 Ventures, Caspian Venture Capital, Fast Digital, GE Ventures, and SNCF.
Hyperloop One was founded by Shervin Pishevar and Brogan BamBrogan.[66] BamBrogan left the company in July 2016,[67] along with three of the other founding members of Arrivo.[68] Hyperloop One then selected Josh Giegel, a former SpaceX engineer, to be a co-founder.[69]
Hyperloop One has a 75,000-square foot Innovation Campus in downtown LA and a 100,000-square foot machine and tooling shop in North Las Vegas. It has currently completed a 500m Development Loop (DevLoop) in North Las Vegas, Nevada.[70]
On May 11, 2016, Hyperloop One conducted the first live trial of Hyperloop technology, demonstrating that its custom linear electric motor could propel a sled from 0 to 110 miles an hour in just over one second.[71] The acceleration exerted approximately 2.5 g on the sled. The sled was stopped at the end of the test by hitting a pile of sand at the end of the track, because the test was not intended to test braking components.[72]
In July 2016, Hyperloop One released a preliminary study that suggested a Hyperloop connection between Helsinki and Stockholm would be feasible, reducing the travel time between the cities to half an hour. The construction costs were estimated by Hyperloop One to be around €19 billion (US$21 billion at 2016 exchange rates).[73]
In August 2016, Hyperloop One announced a deal with the world's third largest ports operator, DP World, to develop a cargo offloader system at DP World's flagship port of Jebel Ali in Dubai.[74] Hyperloop One also broke ground on DevLoop, its full-scale Hyperloop test track.
In November 2016, Hyperloop One disclosed that it has established a high-level working group relationship with the governments of Finland and the Netherlands to study the viability of building Hyperloop proof of operations centers in those countries. Hyperloop One also has a feasibility study underway with Dubai's Roads and Transport Authority for passenger systems in the UAE.[75] Other feasibility studies are underway in Russia, Los Angeles and the Netherlands.
In May 12, 2017, Hyperloop One performed its first full-scale Hyperloop test, becoming the first company in the world to test a full-scale Hyperloop.[76] The system-wide test integrated Hyperloop components including vacuum, propulsion, levitation, sled, control systems, tube, and structures.
On July 12, 2017, the company revealed images of its first generation pod prototype, which will be used at the DevLoop test site in Nevada to test aerodynamics.[77]
On October 12, 2017, the company received a "significant investment" from the Virgin Group founder Richard Branson, leading to a rebrand of the name.[78]
Hyperloop Transportation Technologies[edit]
Hyperloop Transportation Technologies (HTT) is a group of more than 800 engineers and professionals located around the world. Some collaborate part-time; others are full-time employees and contributors. Some members are full-time paid employees; others work in exchange for salary and stock options.
HTT announced in May 2015 that a deal had been finalized with landowners to build a 5-mile (8 km) test track along a stretch of road near Interstate 5 between Los Angeles and San Francisco.[79] In December 2016, Hyperloop Transportation Technologies and the government of Abu Dhabi announced plans to conduct a feasibility study on a Hyperloop link between the UAE capital and Al Ain, reducing travel time between Abu Dhabi and Al Ain to just under 10-minutes.[80] In September 2017 HTT announced and signed an agreement with the Andhra Pradesh government to build a track from Amaravathi to Vijayawada,and it will be a 6 min ride.[citation needed]
TransPod[edit]
TransPod Inc. is a Canadian company designing and manufacturing ultra-high-speed tube transportation technology and vehicles.[81] In November 2016 TransPod raised a $15 million USD seed round from Angelo Investments, an Italian high-tech holding group, specializing in advanced technologies for the railway, space, and aviation industries.[82]
In September 2017, TransPod released a scientific peer-reviewed publication in the journal Procedia Engineering.[83] The paper was premiered at the EASD EURODYN 2017 conference,[84] and presents the physics of the TransPod system.[85]
TransPod vehicles are being designed to travel at over 1000 km/h between cities using fully electric propulsion and zero need for fossil fuels.[85] The TransPod tube system is distinct from the hyperloop concept proposed by Elon Musk’s Hyperloop Alpha white paper. The TransPod system uses moving electromagnetic fields to propel the vehicles with stable levitation off the bottom surface, rather than compressed air.[85] TransPod is stated to contain further developments beyond hyperloop.[86][87] To achieve fossil-fuel-free propulsion, TransPod "pods" take advantage of electrically-driven linear induction motor technology, with active real-time control[85] and sense-space systems.[88] The cargo transport TransPod pods will be able to carry payloads of 10-15 tons and have compatibility with wooden pallets, as well as various unit load devices such as LD3 containers, and AAA containers.[89]
At the InnoTrans Rail Show 2016 in Berlin, TransPod premiered their vehicle concept, alongside implementation of Coelux technology - an artificial skylight to emulate natural sunlight within the passenger pods.[90][91]
TransPod has partnered with investor Angelo Investments' member companies MERMEC, SITAEL and Blackshape Aircraft. With international staff of over 1,000 employees, 650 of whom are engineers, they will collaborate with the development and testing of the TransPod tube system[92][93][82] It has since expanded from its Toronto, Canada headquarters at MaRS Discovery District[94][95] to open offices in Toulouse, France and Bari, Italy.[96][97] TransPod is additionally partnered with university researchers, engineering firm IKOS,[98] REC Architecture and Liebherr-Aerospace.[99][100][101]
TransPod is developing routes worldwide and in Canada such as Toronto-Montreal,[102][43][103] Toronto-Windsor,[44] and Calgary-Edmonton.[45] TransPod is preparing to build a test track for the pod vehicles in Canada.[104] This track will be extendable as part of a full route pending a combination of private and public funding to construct the line.[45]
In July 2017, TransPod released an initial cost study[105] which outlines the viability of building a hyperloop line in Southwestern Ontario between the cities of Windsor and Toronto.[106] The study indicates a TransPod tube system would cost half the projected cost of a high-speed rail line along the same route, while operating at more than four times the top speed of high speed rail.[105]
DGWHyperloop[edit]
Established in 2015, DGWHyperloop is a subsidiary of Dinclix GroundWorks, an engineering company based in Indore, India.[107] DGWHyperloop's initial proposals include a Hyperloop-based corridor between Delhi and Mumbai called the Delhi Mumbai Hyperloop Corridor (DMHC).[108][109] The company has partnered with many government agencies, private companies and institutions for its research on Hyperloop.[110] DGWHyperloop is the only Indian company working on implementing the Hyperloop system across the nation.[111][112][113]
Arrivo[edit]
Arrivo is a technology architecture and engineering company founded in Los Angeles in 2016.[114] With an early focus on "making hyperloops cheap to use and profitable to operate",[115] Arrivo aims to shift the transportation industry into a mode of arrival.[116] In November 2017, it disclosed a plan to build a 200 mph (320 km/h) link for automobiles to Denver International Airport using maglev train technology by 2021.[30]
Hardt Global Mobility[edit]
Hardt Global Mobility[117] was founded in 2016 in Delft, emerging from the TU Delft Hyperloop team who won at the SpaceX Pod Competition.[118]
The Dutch team is setting up a full-scale testing center for hyperloop technology in Delft. Hardt has received over €600,000 in funding for the initial rounds of testing, with plans to raise more to build a high-speed test line by 2019.[119] At the unveiling of the test track, Dutch Minister of Infrastructure and Environment Schultz van Haegen said a Hyperloop system could help cement the Netherlands' position as a gateway to Europe by transporting freight arriving at Rotterdam's sprawling port.[120]
In October 9, 2017 a report was released with information from Hardt Global Mobility and Hyperloop One. The report has been sent to the Dutch House of Representatives and judges the added value of a hyperloop test track facility. The report recommends building a test track of 5 km in Flevoland.[121]
Hyper Chariot[edit]
Hyper Chariot is a startup company based in Santa Monica, United States, that began promoting itself in June 2017. The company has an ambitious plan.[122] On July 27, 2017 it announced a partnership with AML Superconductivity and Magnetics for the development of the vehicle and related propulsion system.[123]
Zeleros[edit]
Zeleros[124][125] was founded in Valencia (Spain) in November 2016 by Daniel Orient (CTO), David Pistoni (CEO) and Juan Vicén (CMO), former leaders of the Hyperloop UPV team from Universitat Politècnica de València. The team was awarded "Top Design Concept" and "Propulsion/Compression Subsystem Technical Excellence" by SpaceX at Hyperloop Design Weekend.[126] After building Spain's first Hyperloop prototype with the support of Purdue University,[127] and building a 12-meter research test-track in Spain[128]at the University, the company was awarded in November 2017 the international Everis Foundation prize [129] and wants to develop new technologies for a more efficient and sustainable transportation.
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